By Dennis Sale
IN the first column in this series on Hard Psychology, I identified and illustrated specific features of brain and mind workings that create significant barriers to good thinking and effective learning. These are evidence-based, and humans need to know how this works to be able to develop effective strategies to mitigate potentially negative impacts. I have no intention of providing pessimistic frames on human capability, in fact, quite the opposite. However, if our young people are unaware of these limiting features of human functioning, and we don’t provide them with effective self-regulatory strategies, then it’s a very worrying scenario. As I see it, we need a global generation of young people who are highly competent good thinkers, armed with resilience and agency, to make humans’ future one of meaning and purpose. I don’t see evidence that this is paramount in many educational contexts.
In this second column, I outline and illustrate what is referred to as the Dark Triad traits, which pose existential concerns for human betterment. These traits rarely surface in mainstream media as they raise ideological and political implications, and this is not without strong emotions and valuations.
Framing the nature of humans
Are humans born basically good, or at least neutral, or are we more selfish, with a significant number being antisocial – even dangerous. The history of psychology, as well as philosophy, have wavered significantly between such human framing. For illustration, Freudian psychology portrayed a dark model of the human psyche, in which the Id (our unconscious wants and fantasies) continually conflicts with our Superego (the constraints imposed by society), which we try to manage with the Ego, our conscious mind. Similarly, the behaviourist psychology of Skinner posited a mechanistic model of human nature, in which we are shaped by our environmental contexts and can be “trained” to be good or otherwise.
In contrast, in the 1960s we saw the development of Humanistic Psychology, pioneered by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, which significantly challenged both psychoanalytic theory and behaviourism. Humanistic psychology focused on individual free will, personal growth, and the concept of self-actualisation. Rogers saw human nature as basically good or at least neutral, possessing an inherent tendency toward growth and wellbeing. He believed that under favourable circumstances (e.g., the experience of positive self-regard, acceptance, and empathy) individuals would naturally develop in a positive direction.
However, a consistent lack of these positive socialisation experiences could lead to mental-health issues and maladaptive behaviour. As a “child of the 1960s”, and a student of psychology, I gravitated to this field of theory and was privileged to have been coached in client-centred therapy by Carl Rogers himself.
More recently, and especially popular in educational and therapeutic contexts, is Positive Psychology which shares many of the core values and themes of humanistic psychology. Positive psychology has expanded the approach by applying a more scientific approach to studying what makes life worth living and the basis of happiness, but there is commonality on being positive and seeking to help people find meaning and direction in their lives, working towards self-actualization. They also emphasise the importance of unconditional positive regard and empowerment as life-affirming values and practices.
What is the Dark Triad?
The Dark Triad refers to the intertwined personality traits of narcissism, Machiavellianism and psychopathy. Narcissism is marked by grandiosity, entitlement, and a persistent need for admiration, often leading to exploitative relationships. Individuals scoring high in narcissism may display arrogance and a lack of empathy. Machiavellianism involves a strategic and manipulative approach to social interaction, where ends justify means. High Machiavellians are cynical and manipulative, often prioritising self-interest even at the expense of others’ well-being. Psychopathy poses significant danger due to its core features: lack of empathy, shallow emotions, impulsiveness, and manipulative tendencies.
Individuals high in psychopathy often engage in risky, harmful behaviours without remorse. Their superficial charm and manipulative nature allow them to deceive and exploit others.
The Dark Triad traits, especially psychopathy, have been extensively researched within the fields of psychology and criminology. Studies have revealed that individuals scoring high on these traits exhibit distinctive patterns of behaviour and cognition that can lead to serious social, legal, and interpersonal consequences. Criminal psychopaths may demonstrate a pattern of predatory aggression and lack the emotional responses that deter most people from committing crimes. Their ability to remain detached and calm in stressful situations, often referred to as “cold-heartedness”, adds to their dangerousness and complicates interventions and rehabilitation efforts.
Estimates of the prevalence of Dark Triad traits in the general population vary widely depending on the study and the specific measure used. Narcissism might be found in around 6% of people at clinically significant levels, but milder forms are much more common. Machiavellianism might be present in around 10-15% of the population at higher levels. Psychopathy is less common and is estimated to affect roughly 1% of the general population, although subclinical levels (where not all the traits are evident at a specifically serious level) might be higher, and some studies show report rates approaching 10%.
In summary, we may not have reliable measures of the extent and magnitude of these “undesirable” traits, but people with them will pose contentious issues in terms of how a society deals with the worse outcomes – whether in terms of deterrence, punishment or
rehabilitation.
For example, I lived in Singapore for 25 years, and that nation state has both the death penalty and the use of the cane for serious offenders. Crime is low there, and I was never fearful of falling victim to such activity. Of course, I offer no opinion on the Singaporean approach, as I prefer to stay within an evidence-based frame in my writing to avoid unnecessary opprobrium.
However, to assume that all humans, even in optimum societal conditions, will inevitably become positive participating members of society may be both naïve and over-optimistic. How we deal with this harsh reality is “Hard Psychology”.
Dennis Sale worked in the Singapore education system for 25 years as advisor, researcher and examiner. He coached over 15,000 teaching professionals and provided 100+ consultancies in the Asian region. Dennis is author of the books Creative Teachers: Self-directed Learners (Springer 2020) and Creative Teaching: An Evidence-Based Approach (Springer, 2015). To contact Dennis, visit dennissale.com.
