By Dennis Sale
IN the first column of this series, I summarised key experiments from the field of social psychology that offered insight into the ways humans are subtly influenced, both consciously and subliminally, into behaviour that may go against our perceptions and feelings, especially in conforming to group pressure and authority figures. In this and the following column I outline the field of cognitive neuroscience and how it will shape the future of learning.
The field of psychology has changed rapidly over the past few decades, resulting from our increasing understanding of how the brain works. We have probably learned more about how the brain works in the past three decades than in the rest of human history.
Understanding how the mind works has a long history with multiple perspectives. For illustration, the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud saw the mind as being largely shaped by selfish unconscious drives, whereas the behaviourist tradition virtually ignored internal cognitive processes, emphasising a mechanistic view of humans shaped by stimuli, responses and reinforcement (BF Skinner’s famous S-R-R) model). There is still merit in these historical frames on the human mind and behaviour, just as there is still merit in horse-driven transportation – but not for intergalactic space travel.
What is cognitive neuroscience?
In recent years there has been an increasing body of validated scientific knowledge on how the brain and mind work and the emergence of a discipline referred to as cognitive neuroscience. It seeks to identify both how the brain influences our thoughts, emotions and behaviours, as well as how the use of the mind shapes brain development. In most basic terms it’s about how “humans work”. For context, Michael Gazzaniga, one of the founding fathers of cognitive neuroscience, prophesied that:
“At some point in the future, cognitive neuroscience will be able to describe the algorithms that drive structural neural elements into the physiological activity that results in perception, cognition, and perhaps even consciousness.”
The brain (a summary)
The human brain is the most complex organ in the body, responsible for controlling thoughts, emotions, and behaviours. While weighing only around three pounds it consists of over 80 billion nerve cells (neurons) and each neuron can communicate with many thousands of other neurons through electrical and chemical signals. Key brain structures include the cerebrum, responsible for executive thinking functions; the cerebellum, which co-ordinates movement and balance; and the brainstem, which regulates vital functions such as breathing and heart rate. The brain is divided into lobes, each with specific functions: the frontal lobe controls personality, decision-making, and movement; the parietal lobe processes sensory information; the temporal lobe is involved in hearing, language, and memory; and the occipital lobe processes visual information. Now that is a lot of kit.
Through the study of brain activity during cognitive tasks using a range of tools and techniques (eg electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, functional magnetic resonance imaging) we are increasingly understanding how neural networks regulate memory, language, decision-making, and other mental processes. This is advancing our capability to positively address neurological disorders as well as providing techniques for enhancing personal effectiveness and wellbeing.
The mind (a summary)
Now this is where things get interesting. It is hard to argue against the view that the mind somehow emerges from brain functioning. For example, Swaab, a physician and neurobiologist, asserts that our brains are the architects of our identities and that from birth neural networks shape our potential, desires, and even our moral compass. He even challenges the notion of free will, arguing that our choices are influenced by the intricate wiring of our brains. Research clearly shows that damage to areas of the brain often leads to changes in mental functioning (including dysfunction), and brain-imaging studies show correlations between specific mental processes and neural activity.
However, research also shows that the conscious activity of the mind plays a significant role in shaping the brain’s structure and function, particularly through neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity is the brain’s ability to change and adapt throughout life, enabling us to learn new skills, form new memories, and recover from injuries. This remarkable ability is made possible by the brain’s ability to form new connections between neurons and reorganise existing ones. Hence, while the brain clearly determines much of the workings of the mind, the mind, in turn, has a reciprocal capability for neural restructuring in the brain – fascinating stuff.
As an entity, the mind is typically associated with the following human functions and capabilities:
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Perception: The process of interpreting sensory information from the world around us.
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Attention: The ability to focus on specific stimuli.
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Memory: The capacity to store and retrieve information.
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Emotion: Feelings and moods that influence our thoughts and behaviours.
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Thought: The mental process of forming ideas and concepts.
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Consciousness: Our awareness of ourselves and our surroundings.
Evidence also supports the notion that there are different layers of mind in that we have a conscious component making us aware of our current thoughts, perceptions and feelings, as well as sub/unconscious components operating below the surface of awareness, influencing emotions, habits, and motivations. Furthermore, we are increasingly discovering that the mind, apart from being a complex dynamic system, it is also far from integrated in terms of its various components working in unison. As Pinker (2003), a leading writer in the field, points out:
“Behaviour…comes from an internal struggle among mental modules with differing agendas and goals.”
While the mind is closely linked to the brain, its exact nature and relationship to physical processes remain a subject of ongoing debate, both from psychologists and philosophers. This is especially the case for that most elusive element of human life experience – consciousness. While cognitive neuroscience examines the relationship between how the mind and brain work together to create consciousness, the exact mechanisms and locations that create our subjective experiences – a major essence of being human – are far from understood.
The question of why and how physical processes in the brain can give rise to our subjective experience of living in the world is regarded as the “hard problem” for the discipline. For example, Yuval Noah Harari, a world-renowned writer on the human condition, has questioned the extent to which consciousness is solely a product of biological processes. The question of there being a “ghost in the machine” or a “soul” remains a fascinating notion – along with the question of what existed before the “big bang”, our current version of the origin of the universe. I confess to having no special insight into such matters but remain excited by the possibility that “the truth is out there”, as the powerful mantra of the popular TV series, The X-Files, noted.
However, cognitive neuroscience continues to examine the relationship between how the mind and brain work together to create consciousness – especially in terms of what specific mechanisms in the brain give rise to subjective experiences and mental states. The main areas of research include:
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Neural correlates of consciousness: Identifying brain regions and networks involved in conscious experiences.
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The role of attention: Understanding how attention shapes our conscious awareness.
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The integration of information: Exploring how different brain regions work together to create a unified conscious experience.
At the individual level, this offers the potential for enhancing people’s capability for good thinking and better self-regulation, and collectively it could improve international relationships through a heightened global “collective intelligence” – and how we could do with such an advancement now. Furthermore, cognitive neuroscience is providing the theoretical foundation for the development of Artificial Generative Intelligence (AGI) which is presently creating intelligent agents capable of learning any intellectual task that humans can do, but much faster.
In summary, it is likely that the synthesis of cognitive neuroscience and AGI will create innovations that radically shape the future of learning. The next column explores likely scenarios and their impact on the educational landscape.
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Dennis Sale worked in the Singapore education system for 25 years as adviser, researcher, and examiner. He coached over 15,000 teaching professionals and provided 100+ consultancies in the Asian region. Dennis is author of the books Creative Teachers: Self-directed Learners (Springer 2020) and Creative Teaching: An Evidence-Based Approach (Springer, 2015). To contact Dennis, visit dennissale.com.
